Church History: A Brief Summary. (2008)

 

 

 

ERA 1—Early Church (1): Persecutions
(AD 30–300)

 

Purpose of Church History

 

What is the purpose of church history? The focus of church history is the gradual execution of God’s plan of redemption. It shows the growth of the kingdom of God. It is about the triumph of the almighty God through the work of the Holy Spirit. It functions as the continuing story after the Acts of Apostles.

 

In studying church history, Christians will meet heroes of Christian faith—“a cloud of witnesses” (Hebrew 12:1)—and learn their thoughts and deeds, and be edified and encouraged to follow their holy example—to “run with endurance”.

 

First century Greek historian Diodorus said that history is “the handmaid of providence, the priestess of truth, and the mother of wisdom.” Church history certainly qualify for these descriptions.

 

By studying church history, one can strengthen one’s faith through the recognition of God’s pervasive guidance of the Church through the ages. Further, by holding the key to the present condition of Christianity, one gains the ability to avoid past errors and the knowledge to plan for future successes.

 

Beginning of the Christian Church

 

At the centre of human history is the coming of Jesus Christ, God’s eternal Son. He died on a cross, but rose triumphantly from the grave in victory over sin and death. Before ascending to heaven, He commanded His disciples to wait in Jerusalem for the coming of the Holy Spirit.

 

At Pentecost (Acts 2:1-41), with the arrival of the Holy Spirit, the church was founded. This new group would eventually be called Christians (Acts 11:26). Believers were inspired to tell others of the good news of the forgiveness of sin.

 

In the early church, Christians met in homes. The leaders were called elders and deacons. The focal point of the worship services was the communion, celebrating the life, death, and resurrection of Christ. Believers met to share a meal, to read Scripture, and to sing praises. Writings from the apostles were gradually circulated among the churches, providing much needed direction, counsel, and exhortation. These 1st-century Christians emphasized the teachings of the apostles, godly living, benevolence, and evangelism. By the end of the 1st-century, Christianity had spread to most of the Mediterranean region.

 

The spreading of Christianity was facilitated by the existence of the Roman Empire. The large extent of the empire allowed Christians to travel freely. The large network of straight, paved, and durable roads built for troop movement and trade provided efficient travel for gospel preachers. The universal Greek language used across the empire helped the preaching of the gospel by breaking down language barriers. The entire New Testament was written in Greek. (The Hebrew Old Testament had been translated into Greek in the 3rd-century BC and is called the Septuagint.)

 

Internal and External Struggles

 

With the passing of the apostles, the church continued to develop, adapting to the cultural and intellectual forces of the day. A church hierarchy emerged, with the bishop as the head of each local church. This church government appeared first in the eastern regions and spread gradually to all churches.

 

Worship continued to focus on the person and work of Christ, on the forgiveness of sin, and the hope of life through the final resurrection. Believers were encouraged to live lives that were distinct and different from those who embraced the surrounding pagan culture of self-gratification and materialism. The communion remained the central feature of worship because it portrayed the church’s message of forgiveness through Christ. Baptism, the only other sacrament, provided the identity as part of the assembly of the saints on earth. There were no saints’ days or holy convocations at this time.

 

The church was frequently attacked by the intellectuals of the day who ridiculed Christianity and questioned its teachings. The Gnostics were the most formidable early opponents, and some of the more scholarly bishops answered pagan charges in reasoned treatises. Among the most visible and eloquent were Justin Martyr (100–165), Irenaeus (130–200), Tertullian (160–215), Clement of Alexandria (155–220), and Origen (185–254). Many of these came from the churches in Alexandria (Egypt) and Carthage (north Africa). These apologists, those who defended the faith, fought against the intrusion of heresy. Sadly, heretics such as Marcionites emerged from within the church as well. The first ecumenical creeds—brief affirmations of the faith—emerged because leaders wanted to ensure that church members professed the essence of Christian faith. Further, the scattered writings of the apostles were gathered to be read in the churches. This helped to defend against heretical writings and lead to the emergence of a defined canon of the Bible.

 

Besides internal struggles, the early church also faced persecutions from the Roman government. Opposing Roman polytheism and unwilling to participate in the emerging emperor cult, Christians were brought under the wrath of the state as being treasonous and worthy of death. Persecutions occurred intermittently throughout this period but the worst were under Emperors Nero [54–68], when Peter and Paul were martyred, Domitian [81–96], when John was exiled, Septimus Severus [202–211], Decius [249–251], and Diocletian [292–305], who tried to destroy the church. Thousands of Christians were killed, including Ignatius [117], Polycarp [155], Justin Martyr [165], and a whole group mercilessly tortured at Lyons [177]. Yet, these deaths proved to be the wellspring of the church’s vitality and growth as persecutions purified the church by purging out the faithless.

 

Later, the authority of the church was gradually centralized in the hands of religious leaders. Because of the challenges from different heresies, bishops were appointed to decide on behalf of the whole church on matters of faith. A hierarchy of clergy formed, holding great power. In the first two centuries, the strongest churches were in Asia Minor and North Africa but gradually, the Western church, led by the bishop in Rome, gradually had dominance over the Eastern church. The debate over the date of Easter [190] symbolized the rise of the power in the West.

 

 

 

ERA 2—Early Church (2): Stability
(AD 300–600)

 

From Persecution to State Religion

 

This period marks Christianity rising from a persecuted group to the prevailing religion of the Roman empire. The emergence of Constantine I as emperor of a unified Roman Empire [313] brought an unexpected calm and tolerance for Christians. Christianity gained political and religious sanction for the first time. Constantine established a second capital at Constantinople [324], and inadvertently laid the groundwork for the later schism between East and West. Later, Emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity the religion of the empire [381]. However, there were still occasional struggles such as during the reign of Emperor Julian [361–363] who attempted unsuccessfully to reestablish paganism.

 

This triumph of the church brought both advantages and disadvantages. Christianity was free of persecution and was sanctioned by the empire to expand from the Atlantic coast to western Asia and from central Europe to northern Africa. Pagan temples became places of Christian worship, and pagan festivals were refashioned into Christian celebrations. Yet, the trend of paganization also affected the institution and practices in the church.

 

One benefit, or perhaps setback, of the church’s triumph was that the state became intensely interested in the church’s struggles. When theological issues arose, emperors often called church leaders together to discuss them. The church, through large gatherings of bishops, could define its teachings and creeds as never before. For example, from the beginning, the church as a whole affirmed the deity of Christ and His co-equality with God.

 

Church Councils

 

Bishops from throughout the empire were summoned by Constantine to meet at Nicea in Asia Minor. They issued the Nicene Creed [325], affirming the church’s teaching that Christ was not created but eternally existing, and was sent to us by the Father in the incarnation. Arianism, the teaching that Christ was only like God, but was a created being, almost overwhelmed orthodoxy within a decade after Nicea, but it was condemned at the Council of Constantinople [381]. Arianism remained a formidable heresy for centuries, taking the form of Socinianism in the 1500s and Unitarianism in the 1700s.

 

The church leaders also sought to explain how divinity and humanity were related in the incarnate Christ. Several ecumenical councils took up Christological issues, culminating in the Council of Chalcedon [451]. The Chalcedonian Definition affirmed the unity of the divine and human natures of Christ, the God-man. This discussion caused the first permanent schism in the Catholic Church as Monophysites, who believed that Christ possessed only a single divine nature, rejected Chalcedon. The Coptic, Ethiopic, and Armenian churches hold this view of Christ even today.

 

As the Roman Empire entered an advanced stage of decline and ultimate collapse in the disposition of the last Roman emperor [476], one of the most remarkable and influential theologian emerged—Augustine of Hippo (354–430). His City of God was the first Christian attempt at a philosophy of history, and his Confessions the first Christian spiritual autobiography. His arguments for predestination and against the teachings of Pelagius (who taught human free will in salvation) became a matter of discussion for centuries, even today. Using Paul’s epistles, Augustine stressed the blight of sin and the inability of any fallen person to choose Christ without the enabling of the Holy Spirit. Salvation, therefore, was a work of God’s grace alone, not the result of human worth or effort. Christian good works were not a means to salvation but a loving response to it.

 

Growing Power of the Church

 

The long and hard struggles for power between the church (religious power structure) and the state (political power structure) in the Middle Ages was foreshadowed in a dramatic confrontation between Bishop Ambrose and Emperor Theodosius [390] because of the latter’s cruelty against rioters. The emperor eventually yielded in a public penance.

 

As the emperor’s power declined, the Bishop of Rome’s power increased. Pope Leo I [440–461] negotiated and saved Rome from Attila the Hun [452]. He asserted authority over other bishops, claiming the Bishop of Rome was the successor to Apostle Peter.

 

Rome had been the western capital of the once mighty empire. From the crumbling moral and cultural debris of Roman civilization, the church at Rome emerged as a stabilizing force in the time of Gregory I [590–604], the last of the Church Fathers. Though he avoided the title of pope, he was the first bishop in the church to claim the superiority of the Roman church over all other churches. This view was vigorously rejected by the Eastern bishops, causing the alienation of the Eastern and Western churches. In his teaching, Gregory I generally followed Augustine in his understanding of sin and grace, though he rejected some of the harsher features of his mentor. He also gave the Catholic mass much of the shape it has today. Throughout the Middle Ages, the authority of the Roman bishops gradually increased, eventually rising above kings and emperors.

 

Dionysius Exiquus (d. 550), a monk in Rome, established modern system of dating, using events after Christ as “Anno Domini”—in the year of our Lord. However, he missed the date of Christ’s birth by a few years (now generally dated between 7 BC and 4 BC).

 

 

 

ERA 3—Medieval Church (1): Expansion and Conflicts
(AD 600–1000)

 

Rise of Monasticism

 

Monasticism was an isolationist and pietistic ideal, and a protest movement against worldliness. Later, the monasteries became the preserver of Christian scholarship as well as the source of Christian missions and education. When the church was in deep corruption, the monasteries acted as the centre of a revitalization movement.

 

The beginning of monasticism was traced to Anthony of Egypt (251–357). In his youth, he sold his possessions, and went into solitude, living as a hermit under the strictest self-denial, and engaging in prayer and meditation. In the 6th-century, Benedict of Nursia put his ascetic ideal into communal monasticism and founded the Benedictine Order [529]. While the papacy fell into its darkest period of corruption in the 10th-century, the monasteries became the place where order in the church remained. The founding of the monastery of Cluny [910] was the beginning of an aggressive spiritual renewal that focused on the Benedictine vow of poverty, chastity, and obedience. A Benedictine monk Hildebrand later became Pope Gregory VII [1073–1085].

 

More monastic orders were founded after 1000: [1] Cistercian Order [1098], with emphasis on the rule of silence, contemplation, and poverty. [2] Carmelite Order [1155]. [3] The Franciscan Order [1209] founded by Francis of Assisi (1182–1226), with emphasis preaching and poverty. [4] Dominican Order [1216] founded by Dominic Guzman (1170–1221), with emphasis in scholarly studies and preaching.

 

Missions among the Barbarians

 

Before this era, there were sporadic attempts to spread the gospel to fringe areas of the Roman Empire. Through the work of Patrick (390–461), Christianity flourished in Ireland during the 5th-century. However, major missionary effort was only initiated as a response to the challenge by invading barbarians. In 496, the King Clovis of the Franks, the most dominant of the pagan tribes, converted to Christianity and was baptized. He later conquered half of France and paved the way for Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire.

 

The invasion of pagan tribes, such as the Goths, Franks, and Vandals brought an end to the Roman Empire in the 5th-century. Augustus Romulus was the last Roman emperor [475–476]. In the midst of this political collapse and cultural chaos, the church assumed increasing power in the western Mediterranean. In response to the invasion, Pope Gregory I sent missionaries to the pagan tribes that had settled across the empire. The effort was highly successful.

 

In the 6th-century, Recared, Visigoth king in Spain became a Christian. Missionaries from Ireland and England, such as Boniface (680–754), went to labour among the tribes in central Europe. Anskar (801–865), “Apostle of the North,” laid foundation for Christianity in Scandinavia. Cyril (826–869) and Methodius (815–885), the “Apostles of the Slavs,” worked in Moravia. In the 10th-century, Hungarians, Bohemians, and Poles began to convert to Christianity. In 988, Prince Vladimir of Kiev was baptized. Christianity also expanded to Iceland and Greenland in the west.

 

A distinctive character of this era was the transition of the centre of the church from western Asia and North Africa to central and western Europe, from the Greco-Roman nationality to that of the Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic races. A historian was probably correct in saying that European civilization would have been wiped out by the pagan barbarians were it not for the missionary efforts of the church.

 

Emergence of Islam

 

The emergence of the Islamic religion was a major disaster for the future fortunes of Christianity. Invented by Muhammad (570–632) based on a modified but corrupted Christianity, this militant monotheistic religion took advantage of the power vacuum that followed the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, and the deep political and spiritual divisions of the Byzantine Empire in the East. Islam faced no significant military obstacles as it entered Jerusalem [638] and Damascus, reached into the Indus Valley, spread across North Africa, invaded and conquered Spain, and threatened to sweep across all of Europe. All of these gains occurred between 622, when Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina, and 732, when Islam encountered its first significant military defeat at the hands of Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in France—a decisive turning point in Christian resistance to Muslim advance. Throughout this era, the Islamic faith posed both an intellectual and a military threat to the Christian church.

 

Holy Roman Empire

 

The Franks, embracing Christianity since Clovis, gave rise to dynasties of kings in central Europe. First was the Merovingian dynasty which was replaced [614] by one of history’s most successful dynasties, the Carolingian. Rulers such as Charles Martel and Pepin the Short maintained a close link to the papacy which relied on them for its protection.

 

The connection between the civil authority and the ecclesiastical authority reached its summit with the reign of Pepin’s son Charlemagne (Charles the Great, 742–814). In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne the first “Holy Roman Emperor” at St. Peter’s in Rome. The occasion was important in its implication that the state’s authority was derived from the church. Charlemagne was famous for military conquests, strong central government, ecclesiastic reform, and educational patronage. Later, Otto the Great [emperor, 936–973] revived Charlemagne’s dream of a Holy Roman Empire among the German people. In some form, the empire continued until the time of Napoleon [1806].

 

Corruption in the Papacy

 

With the demise of the Carolingian dynasty, which occurred at the time of Viking intrusions into Europe, a chaotic period occurred in the church. Pope Leo III [795–816] became the supreme bishop in the West. But the period in the 9th and 10th centuries was one with continuous ecclesiastical corruption and injustice. The investiture of the popes and church officials fell into the hands of powerful aristocratic families through simony (buying and selling of the ecclesiastic posts, including the papacy), violence, and even murder.

 

Pope John VIII [872–882] was murdered. After that, pope succeeded pope in rapid sequence. Some were strangled; some died of starvation in dungeons. At times, there were two popes, or even three, each claiming to be the one true pope. Between 882 and 1003, there were officially 32 popes, averaging less than 4 years per pope. In 1032, a 15-year old boy was named Pope Benedict IX. He abdicated for a financial reward [1044], but then retracted and became pope again [1045]. He was deposed shortly after, became pope again [1047], deposed again [1048] and was excommunicated.

 

As the church accumulated land and wealth, church leaders such as bishops and abbots controlled public properties for personal use, enjoying luxurious way of life. All these corruptions awakened a deep yearning for renewal and reform among the faithful.

 

 

 

ERA 4—Medieval Church (2): Growth & Decline of the Papacy
(AD 1000–1500)

 

Growth of Papal Power

 

A long string of weak popes ended by the middle of the 10th-century when some monks gained control of the papacy. Starting with Pope Leo IX [1049–1054], some reform minded popes began a period of renewal. Pope Gregory VII [1073–1085, Hildebrand] moved to reform the church with emphasis on priestly celibacy and the abolition of simony. The struggle to free the church from political control continued for a long time and was best illustrated by the humiliation of the powerful Emperor Henry IV by Gregory VII at Canossa [1077]. Eventually, a compromise was signed with the Concordat of Worms [1122], separating ecclesiastical and civil authorities.

 

The growing dominance of the popes and bishops in social and political affairs reached its peak with Pope Innocent III [1198–1216]. Not only did he wield authority over monarchs of all Europe in an unprecedented manner, but he presided over the most significant gathering of the church in the medieval period, the Fourth Lateran Council [1215]. Transubstantiation of communion was declared, auricular confession was mandated, and military crusades were sanctioned against dissidents within the church and against Islam. Papal bull Unam sanctum [1302] pronounced the highest papal claims to supremacy.

 

The positive side of this church renewal, however, was a new surge in missions that penetrated into Scandinavia. Missionary work from both the Western and the Eastern churches also brought an increasing number of eastern European and Slavic people into Christianity. The conversion of Russia led eventually to the establishment of the Russian Orthodox Church [1448].

 

East-West Schism

 

The Western church centred in Rome and the Eastern church centred in Constantinople had long been competing for dominance. The Eastern church recognized the decisions and creeds of only 7 ecumenical councils: the 2 councils of Nicea [325 and 787], the 3 councils of Constantinople [381, 553, and 680–681], and the councils of Ephesus [431] and Chalcedon [451]. They permitted lower ranks of clergy to marry, whereas celibacy had become an institutionalized requirement from the time of the monastic renewal in the West. The Eastern church’s more mystical outlook and veneration of icons caused open strife at times in the 8th and 9th centuries during the Iconoclastic Controversy. The two churches even differed over the type of bread to be served in the communion.

 

An even older feud had to do with a seemingly minor point of understanding regarding the Trinity. The Eastern church held that the Holy Spirit was proceeded from the Father alone, through the Son. The Western held that the Spirit proceeded from both the Father and the Son. An earlier conflict over spiritual jurisdiction and the doctrine of Trinity occurred when Photius (820–895), a renowned scholar, became Patriarch of Constantinople [858].

 

With the renewal of the church and growing papal fortunes in the West, the hostilities between Eastern and Western churches once again surfaced. Popes in Rome demanded that the Eastern church acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, but this was unacceptable to the Eastern patriarchs. Finally the simmering conflict boiled over into a permanent schism [1054]. The Western (Catholic) Church and the Eastern (Orthodox) churches went their separate ways and the division has lasted to the present.

 

Crusades against Islamic invasion

 

The vitality of the Western church, as well as its increased political strength, was manifested clearly in its ability to deal with the Islamic threat. When Jerusalem was under the conquest of Islam, Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade to reclaim Jerusalem from the Muslims [1095]. Armies from various Christian countries united and marched to the East in an effort to stem the tide of Islamic encroachment on Christian territories. Jerusalem was recaptured [1099], a Latin kingdom established, and holy sites recovered throughout Palestine. Yet the Muslim invaders would return to sack Jerusalem again and again. These huge military activities would last two centuries. In all, there were 8 crusades between 1096 and 1270. Eventually, the Crusader presence in Holy Land would end with the fall of Acra [1291].

 

A more successful front was the expulsion of Muslims from Spain and Sicily. The Christian kings joined to defeat the Moors [1212]. By 1248, the only Moorish state in Spain was the kingdom of Granada which eventually fell to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella [1492].

 

The atrocities and bloodshed of these wars were to cause permanent tensions between Muslims and Christians. However, the Crusades did stop the expansion of Islam into Europe.

 

Expansion and Scholasticism

 

The political and economic stability in Western European society after the 10th-century hastened the emergence of nation-states and the building of magnificent Gothic churches throughout Europe. Within these huge structures emerged the cathedral schools, the seeds of the universities, whose educational methods and philosophy stood in contrast to the monastic schools of previous centuries. A new approach to academic training emerged, created in part by the need to answer the intellectual and philosophical challenges posed by Islam.

 

A new breed of teachers, the scholastics, appeared. John Scotus Erigena (810–877), one of greatest theologians of early Middle Ages, helped pave the way for scholasticism which was characterized mainly by their method in dealing with theology, that is, the application of reason to questions of faith. Anselm (1033–1109), archbishop of Canterbury wrote Why Did God Become a Man? explaining the reasons for Christ’s death and formulated the ontological argument for the existence of God. Peter Abelard (1079–1142) wrote Yes and No which discussed how theological questions could have rational solutions. Peter Lombard (1095–1160) wrote Four Books of Sentences which became the precursor of systematic theology. Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274) was the foremost defender of the church and the greatest theologian in the Middle Ages. He summarized scholastic theology in his great work Summa Theologica [1265–1273].

 

Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism

 

The renewal movement lost its momentum after the 12th-century, and the church encountered many problems. The old question of the authority of church over state continued. Under threat from surrounding secular governments, Pope Clement V moved from Rome to Avignon in 1309. Successive popes increasingly became pawns under the control of the French king. Luther would later refer to the era as the “Babylonian Captivity of the church” [1309–1377] illustrating how the true church had been taken captive by the Roman hierarchy.

 

Under the urging of Catherine of Siena (1347–1380), the Pope returned officially to the Vatican [1377], but France simply installed a rival papacy at Avignon, resulting in the 40-year Great Schism [1378–1417]. During this era, there were two colleges of cardinals electing two popes. Multiple popes each claimed to hold Peter’s celestial keys and excommunicated all who refused to acknowledge them. Gradually, the church grew weary of the division. The Conciliar Movement, an effort to return to a single pope and unity in the church, succeeded in electing Martin V at the Council of Constance [1414–1418]. The right of general councils to take such action, however, would continue to be an unresolved issue.

 

Pre-Reformation Protests

 

The renewal of the Roman Church brought with it an attempt to deal with forces that threatened it both from within and without. Anti-clerical and anti-hierarchical movements emerged in the 10th-century. Among these were the Albigensians and the Waldensians [begun in 1173] who sought truth in the Bible rather than medieval tradition. They were branded as heretical and were subjected to cruel torture and execution. Later, Protestants came to regard the Waldensians as a positive response to the corruption in the church and as predecessors of Protestant reform.

 

The decline of prestige in the papacy was accompanied by cries for ecclesiastical and spiritual renewal. Echoing the complaint of the Waldensians, John Wycliffe (1329–1384) of Oxford wrote books calling for a more Bible-centred faith and for the deposing of unworthy priests, including popes. His ideas for reform led him to translate the Bible into English and to send out lay preachers, called Lollards. These efforts brought about the condemnation of his works after his death by the Council of Constance. The same council killed John Huss (1369–1415), a Bohemian reformer and follower of Wycliffe. Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498) preached moral and political reform and instituted a theocratic government at Florence, only to be martyred. Change of direction was demanded, but there was no consensus on the kind of measures needed to correct the abuses.

 

Renaissance

 

While the papacy sank in the worst moral and spiritual decay, western civilization were stirred by a new movement, known as the Renaissance. This movement was spawned by humanists—the intellectual and artistic elite of the day—and it quickly spread across Europe. Ideas were disseminated widely with the invention of movable printing press by Gutenberg [1440]. The Renaissance, with its biting works of literature such as Boccaccio’s Decameron [1352] and Dante’s Divine Comedy [1421], proved to be a popular criticism of medieval decadence. Most importantly, the Renaissance emphasized that people could solve their own problems by reconnecting with the past, an idea that unwittingly undercut confidence in the church.

 

In Italy, the Renaissance focused on art, sculpture, and architecture along with a rediscovery of the Greco-Roman past. In northern Europe, however, humanism was identified with scholarship and with the return to original sources. This, in turn, brought about an increased emphasis on the study of biblical languages and the early Church Fathers. Scholars discovered that many of the problems in the church had come about because the church had deviated from its original teachings. Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), the greatest of the Renaissance humanists, promoted renewal along Biblical lines with his critical edition of the Greek New Testament [1516] and editions of the Greek and Latin Fathers. He let the Scripture speak for themselves and used essays employing harsh sarcasm to criticize the church’s moral and intellectual failures.

 

Preoccupied with wars, political intrigues, and the building of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, the papacy ignored pleas for renewal. By the 15th-century, the highest office of the church had become a model for the worst kind of moral degeneration. The ineffectiveness of centuries of attempted reform would result in the decisive Reformation.

 

 

 

ERA 5—Modern Church (1): Reformation & Struggles
(AD 1500–1700)

 

The Protestant Reformation

 

Modern church history is the age of conflicts, between Protestantism and Romanism, between religious liberty and authority, between individual Christianity and a traditional church system.

 

By the 16th-century, the corruption within the church had become so serious and widespread that the time of correction had arrived. In independent studies of the Bible, various groups came to the same conclusion that the church has deviated from the Biblical faith, and they could no longer submit to the authority of the pope. The largest groups were led by Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Tyndale, and the Anabaptists. While all of them attempted to recover the original faith from the Word of God—the Bible, each arrived at a slightly different conclusion so that there were some disagreements among various groups.

 

Another important factor which propelled the spread of Reformation was the invention of printing. The Bible became more available for the common person as Luther translated the Bible into German [1534], and Tyndale into English [1525]. King James Version of the English Bible [1611] became the most influential Bible in English speaking countries for many centuries.

 

Martin Luther and Lutheranism

 

The catalyst for the Reformation was the troubled soul of a German Augustinian monk named Martin Luther (1483–1546). Trying rigorously to pacify his guilty conscience through the sacramental system, he found failure in all his efforts. Eventually, he turned to the Bible and discovered that he had hopelessly tried to gain peace through his own effort instead of through faith in the work of Christ. He found peace with God. From then on, his emphasis in teaching became justification by grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone.

 

On October 31, 1517, Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses on the Wittenberg church door. His intention was simply to seek a debate in the selling of “indulgences” (releases from the punishment for sin for the living and the dead in exchange for money). It became the opening shot of the Protestant Reformation. As Luther’s writings gained wide publicity, he was eventually excommunicated by the pope. Luther was then tried at the Diet of Worms [1521] before both civil and church authorities. While hidden by his friends at Wartburg Castle, Luther prepared a German translation of the New Testament. One year later, he returned to Wittenberg and, until his death, led the movement that was known formally as the Evangelical Church and informally as Lutheranism. Assisted by the brilliant Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560), who wrote the Augsburg Confession [1530], Lutheranism was accepted by the majority of the German states and in Scandinavia and was formally recognized by the Peace of Augsburg [1555].

 

Zwingli and Calvin

 

Another important leader of Reformation was the Swiss theologian Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531). After becoming a priest in Zurich [1519], he presented his new doctrines in the form of the Sixty-seven Articles. He won the city over to his position after a formal debate. By similar debates, the Reformation spread into surrounding areas of German-speaking Switzerland.

 

French theologian John Calvin (1509–1564) wrote the Institutes of Christian Religion [1536] to summarize his theology, based on his study of the Bible. This work was revised many times during Calvin’s life and eventually influenced all subsequent work in Protestant theology. While travelling through Geneva, Switzerland, he became a participant of the Reformation that had already started in that city. He eventually became the most influential person in Geneva and helped reforming not only the church there but also the civic government. He also established the Geneva Academy which trained theologians that spread his teachings throughout the world. Later, the French-Swiss in Geneva and the German-Swiss in the north would unite under the Second Helvetic Confession.

 

Calvinism and the Reformed Church spread across Europe, becoming the dominant Protestantism in Holland and Scotland, and in parts of Germany, Poland, and Hungary. In France, the Calvinists were called Huguenots. They suffered persecution (particularly in the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre of 1572), but emerged after the Edict of Nantes [1598] to enjoy toleration and growth. However, persecution scattered them once again when the edict was revoked [1685].

 

Calvinism was firmly established in Scotland through the labours of John Knox (1513–1572) and would exert an enormous influence in England with the establishment of the Puritan movement in the Anglican Church. In Holland, Jakob Arminius (1560–1609) and his followers sought to modify Calvinistic predestination through the Five Remonstrances [1610] which was rebuffed by the Synod of Dort [1618]. The Arminianism was eventually adopted by the Methodists and the General Baptists.

 

Anabaptists and Baptists

 

Historians have generally recognized two broad Reformation movements; the magisterial, linking the state and church together, and the radical, which opposed state alliances in order to be independent in their teachings. These radical reformists include a vast spectrum of theological opinions, including anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus (Socinianism), inner light advocates like the Schwenkfelders, pacifists such as Menno Simons (1496–1561, leader of the Mennonites), millennialists such as the Munsterites, and various Baptist groups.

 

The Baptist theology grew largely from Zwingli’s reforms in Zurich. Some of Zwingli’s supporters believed that baptism was only for adult converts. In 1525, a group of them rebaptized one another (the basis for the name Anabaptist), starting a new movement. Because of persecution against them, they were scattered throughout Europe. Many found a refuge in Holland and became Mennonites.

 

The Puritan movement (those who desired to purify the church of papal remnants) in England led to the emergence of Baptists as they are known today. Separatist Puritans (teaching church independence and congregational form of governance) established the General Baptists [1609]. Some formed the Particular Baptist movement in the 1640s.

 

Reformation in England

 

Reformation in England was initiated by the monarchs. It began with papal unwillingness to grant Henry VIII a divorce. The conflict led Henry to make himself the head of the English Church. Under his successor Edward VI, Protestantism flourished. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) wrote the Forty-two Articles and the Book of Common Prayer [1549]. Later, Queen Mary Tudor (1516–1558) attempted to violently reestablish Catholicism, earning her the epithet Bloody Mary. Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) reversed the course and established the via media, the church of the middle way, bringing religious peace. The confession was reduced to the Thirty-nine Articles [1562], removing some objectionable Calvinism while remaining Protestant in doctrine and elevating the role of the priesthood and liturgy. This Elizabethan Settlement [1558] created the Church of England or the Anglican Community.

 

Puritans hoped for more decisive change and developed alternatives to state-episcopal rule—Presbyterianism under Thomas Cartwright, and Congregationalism under Henry Jacob. Classic works of Christian literature by Puritans at this time include John Milton’s Paradise Lost [1667] and John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress [1678].

 

The ascension of James VI of Scotland to the throne in 1603 as James I proved to be a disappointment for the Puritans. He increased the power of Episcopalianism. (James did sanction a new Bible translation, the King James Version [1611].) Tensions escalated between the Puritans, the church, and the king until civil war erupted [1642]. Parliament replaced King Charles I but quickly fell into disagreeing factions that doomed hopes for restructuring the national church. With the writing of the Westminster Confession [1644], two catechisms, and a Directory of Worship, the Westminster Assembly sought to establish Presbyterianism as England’s official religion but was opposed by Congregational Puritans led by Oliver Cromwell. The restoration of the monarchy [1660] brought an end to Puritan hopes of restoring the church to its primitive simplicity.

 

Before the English Civil War, the persecution of nonconformist Puritans led to their mass migration to the English colonies during the 1620s and 1630s. Many settled in New England, hoping to establish more Biblical Christian governments. The Pilgrim branch of the Puritan movement established Plymouth Colony.

 

Roman Catholic Counter Reformation

 

Even before the Protestant Reformation, some in the Roman Catholic Church had attempted to revitalize the decadent medieval church. The Inquisition was established [1480] by the pope to get rid of false adherents in Italy and Spain. Jimenes, Bishop of Toledo, became Inquisitor General in Spain persecuting Jews, Muslims, and dissenting Christians. It is estimated that the Spanish Inquisition burnt 14,000 people, and condemned another 200,000 who were mostly exiled.

 

Several monastic orders were created in an effort to reform, such as the Oratory of Divine Love [1517] and the Capuchins [1525]. The most influential of the new orders was the Jesuits [1540], founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556). Stressing a militant level of obedience to the Pope, the order emphasized education, missions, and inquisition to preserve the church and deter Protestants. Their missionary work was commendable; their political intrigues and persecution of Protestants were not. Jesuit Francis Xavier (1506–1552) carried the message of the church to the Far East; Franciscans founded missions in South America.

 

The grand reforming council of the church was at Trent [1545–1563] in northern Italy. However, it was hardly ecumenical as only 31 bishops attended the first session, eventually increasing to 213. It wrote the modern Roman Catholic creed. Protestant teachings were condemned, and the church alone was recognized as having the authority to interpret the Scripture. Tradition was granted an authoritative status equal to the Scripture; seven sacraments were defined; and justification was seen as a gradual process of becoming righteous, and required good works. Christ’s death was a sacrifice that only made salvation possible; it then had to be received through the offices and sacraments of the Roman Church. Further, it was claimed that the actions of Trent were the direct will of the Holy Spirit for the church, giving council decisions the authority of infallible dogma. Activities against Protestantism were generally referred to as the Counter Reformation.

 

The struggles between Protestantism and Romanism led to the death of many thousands. In central Europe, the Thirty Years’ War [1618–1648] brought destruction as Protestants and Catholics fought for power. Thousands of religious leaders and common people were executed for religious reasons, most of them Protestants, the largest number being in France and the low countries (Holland, Belgium). Foxe’s Book of Martyrs recorded the persecution of believers in Christ through the centuries.

 

Enlightenment and Rationalism

 

With roots stretching back to the Renaissance, the Enlightenment held that human reason was able to create a glorious future through the sciences. Traditional Christian views such as human depravity and dependence upon God were increasingly regarded as detrimental to progress. The religious expression of the Enlightenment was Deism, a belief that God was a clockmaker who had created the world and then abandoned it to natural law. God was effectively reduced to a force within nature.

 

Rene Descartes (1596–1650) has been called the first modern man because he embodied so much of Enlightenment thought. He sought truth from the starting point of reflective thinking, from “clear and distinct ideas,” not from the Bible. John Locke (1632–1704), the father of the British empiricism, suggested that knowledge could only be derived through data accumulated by the senses.

 

Gottfried von Leibniz (1646–1716) believed in “pre-established harmony” between matter and mind, and developed a kind of rationalism by which he attempted to reconcile the existence of matter with the existence of God. He was also, with Isaac Newton, a co-inventor of calculus which later facilitated advances in scientific theories.

 

Most approaches to knowledge proposed by philosophers ridiculed the role of revelation. Christianity now faced a serious philosophical opponent. Religious expressions of the Enlightenment—Unitarianism and Deism—attempted to reshape traditional Christianity by questioning the integrity of the Bible, the person of Jesus Christ, and the traditional teaching about the sinfulness of mankind. These were replaced by an optimism about human progress.

 

 

 

ERA 6—Modern Church (2): Revival & Missions
(AD 1700–1900)

 

Pietism and Methodists

 

Because the Protestant Reformation was a movement that originated from the re-emphasis of the Bible, most of the efforts had concentrated on defining doctrines. But faith is more than rational arguments. Just as monasticism was a reaction to the dead medieval church, pietism and Methodism were a reaction to the dead orthodoxy in the post-Reformation church.

 

Pietism first emerged in Germany. Pietists believed that true Christianity touched the heart as well as the mind, producing a vigorous religious experience that would lead to evangelistic effort. The first leader Philipp Spener (1635–1705) called for devotion and study of the Bible in his influential book Pious Desires. A centre of Pietism was Halle, where August Francke (1663–1727) taught the joy of Christian life. The most famous Pietist was Count von Zinzendorf (1700–1760), who sheltered the Moravians on his estate at Herrnhut. They were intensely active in missionary work.

 

In Oxford, England, George Whitefield (1714–1770) and John Wesley (1703–1791) were drawn into a group called the Holy Club. Because of their adherence to methodical practices, they were pejoratively called Methodists. Whitefield could not find acceptance within the church for preaching spiritual renewal. So he preached in open fields attracting massive crowds. John Wesley experienced spiritual revival in 1738 at a Moravian meeting in London’s Aldersgate Street. Through Wesley’s tireless preaching and a group of dutiful circuit riders, England was swept by a renewal of religious fervour. Wesley’s followers formed the Methodist Church in America [1784] and in England [1795]. Equally important was his brother, Charles Wesley, whose gift for writing verse set the Methodists to singing.

 

American and French Revolutions

 

The Age of Reason, with its belief in human ability to chart its own course and its hostility to imposed authority (religious or civil), influenced the political thoughts. In France and in British America, it led to the embrace of the social contract theory of government. Legitimate governments were based on voluntary consent of the governed, not divine right of kings or church; evil governments could be justly deposed.

 

In the new United States, a federal system was erected that advanced Deist and Unitarian notions of a Supreme Judge and a God of Nature but ignored the theological and moral tenets of Biblical Christianity. The Declaration of Independence [1776], and later the Constitution [1787], established a secular state where people of divergent religious beliefs agreed to work together to create a society based on the will of the majority.

 

Republican ideals and religion coexisted in America; this was not the case in France. Though the French Revolution [1789] held to the same philosophical principles as the American Revolution, it took an exceptionally ugly turn. The “will of the people” established a secular religion that would replace Christianity with the worship of the “goddess of reason.” Mob rule filled the streets until the Reign of Terror instituted murderous citizen courts which ruled by the use of the guillotine. The revolution ended with a totalitarian state under Napoleon Bonaparte. The Roman Catholic Church in France was greatly weakened, and religion was permanently marginalized.

 

Philosophical Challenges and Reaction

 

Advances in philosophy, science, social science and historical studies all challenged the necessity of religious belief.

 

In philosophy, David Hume (1711–1776) tried to show that rationalistic approaches to knowledge would only lead to uncertainty and skepticism. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) proposed a theory of knowledge that denied the existence of purely objective knowledge and concluded that the pure rationality of rationalists is only an illusion. They undercut the foundation of rationalism.

 

In social science, Auguste Comte (1798–1857), father of positivism, advanced the theory that cultures were not static but evolved from a primitive stage to a mature stage, from theology to metaphysics to science. In other words, religion had now been eclipsed by philosophy and science.

 

In science, the challenge from Darwinism was particularly strong. The publication of On the Origin of Species [1859] by Charles Darwin was influential because it suggested a mechanism by which the order of the universe could be accounted for by natural processes, thus eliminating the necessity of a Creator God.

 

In response to these challenges, some Protestants tried to redefine Christianity. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), the father of religious liberalism, argued that religious truth was a matter of subjective feeling, not objective knowledge. He sought to secure a place for religion by retreating to the inner realm to find its validity. Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) and Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930) continued the liberal movement by arguing that the Bible contained the revelation of God, but not by itself the Word of God. Christianity, therefore, could be studied scientifically, as a historical and cultural phenomenon, essentially reducing Christ to a caring human with deluded followers, thus denying the core of the gospel.

 

The reaction by the Roman Catholic church was very different. The church resisted the challenges by emphaszing on the role and dominance of the church’s leadership. In order to resist liberalism in the church and culture, Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors [1869], which condemned specific new ideas, but the effect was pushing dissent underground. In the Council of Vatican I [1870], the preservation of orthodoxy was achieved by the assertion of papal infallibility.

 

In late 18th-century was the vast overturning of traditional ideas and institutions. Deism in England and the US, atheism in France, liberalism in Germany, represented the various degrees of the great modern apostasy away from the orthodox creeds.

 

Social Reform

 

Drawing upon the renewal movements of the previous century, and responding to the social ills brought on by the emergence of uncontrolled capitalism and industrialization, this period was marked by Christian leadership in improving the society through social reforms. The record of accomplishments was impressive. For example, Robert Raikes (1735–1811) established what became known as the Sunday School Movement to educate poor children. Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885) worked hard to secure child-labour laws. John Howard (1726–1790) sought prison reform. William Wilberforce (1759–1833) laboured to end the immoral slave trade. Influential lay Christian leaders cooperated to gain favourable legislation for the oppressed. Monumental results were achieved by the YMCA, founded by George Williams (1821–1905), and the Salvation Army, founded by William Booth (1829–1912) and Catherine Booth (1829–1890). Both helped to relieve the ravages of industrialization. Such good works were perceived as the natural fruit of being a Christian, never as merely an option.

 

Revivals in the U.S.

 

While Christianity in Europe was under cultural pressures to remodel to fit with the secular world, Christians in the United States followed an entirely different path. Pietism and renewal together brought a Great Awakening [1730s–1740s] in the American colonies. In 1734, Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758), wellknown for his famous sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” [1741], called for an experience of conviction of sin and of divine forgiveness. Later, Edwards welcomed Whitefield into his pulpit when Whitefield toured New England. Fires of revival were spread to the southern colonies, where Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches grew rapidly.

 

After the American Revolution, a Second Great Awakening [1800s–1830s] swept the new nation. It affected every religious tradition, brought in new denominations, and spawned a variety of cults. Revival first broke out in colleges such as Yale, led by its president Timothy Dwight (1752–1817), Jonathan Edwards’s grandson. They swept the eastern seaboard and rural New York state, extending west into the frontier and north into Canada. The greatest success of camp-meeting revivals was the Cane Ridge Revival [1801] in Kentucky. Charles Finney (1792–1875) was one of the famous preachers, stressing an evangelical social consciousness, the so-called Benevolence Empire.

 

After the civil war, a Third Great Awakening [1880s–1900s] was led by Dwight Moody (1837–1899) and Ira Sankey (1840–1908) who preached to large gatherings calling people to repentance and salvation in Jesus Christ.

 

After these, revivalism would become a staple feature of American Christianity. The revival fervour led to the founding of new religious groups. Among them were the Restoration movement founded by Alexander Campbell and Barton Stone (objecting denominationalism, concentrating on the essential aspects of the Christian faith, allowing for a diversity of understanding with non-essentials); the Holiness movement (a renewed emphasis upon John Wesley’s views on complete sanctification); but also cults including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons, organized by Joseph Smith); the Jehovah’s Witnesses or Watch Tower Society (founded on the teachings of Charles Taze Russell); and Christian Science (founded by Mary Baker Eddy).

 

The most important impact of the Awakening was the dominance of Christianity in the general culture; America became a Christian nation. There was an enormous surge in educational, missionary, and social reform movements. Numerous colleges sprang into being; mission boards sent men and women all over the world; organizations such as the American Bible Society [1816] and the American Tract Society [1825] were born; and the quest for an applied faith contributed to the anti-slavery and temperance movements.

 

Protestant Missions to the World

 

Just as the 18th-century had been the great century of renewal in many churches, so the 19th-century was the century of Protestant missionary movements. William Carey (1761–1834), a principal founder of the Baptist Foreign Missions Society [1792], was called the founder of the modern missionary movement for calling Christians to cooperate across denominations in sending missionaries. In the US, the Haystack Prayer Meeting, an informal gathering of students caught in a rainstorm [1806], resulted in the first American foreign missions society, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions [1812]. The work of Carey and Henry Martyn (1781–1812) in India, Mary Slessor (1848–1915) in West Africa, David Livingstone (1813–1873) in East Africa, the Heart of Africa Evangelization Crusade, and J. Hudson Taylor (1832–1905) in China represented the most visible few from the thousands who pioneered in cross-cultural missions.

 

 

 

ERA 7—Modern Church (3): Ecumenism & Adaptations
(AD 1900–2000)

 

Political and Social Changes

 

The Enlightenment promised a better world and unending human progress through education, and advances in science and technology. Science succeeded in conquering diseases leading to longer life; technology provided economic prosperity and material wealth. The 20th-century opened throughout much of the world in triumphal optimism. Yet the unstable political situation in eastern Europe led to rivalry among European powers. The World War I [1914–1918] destroyed the optimism. The instability continued after the war. The Great Depression [1929–1939] brought economic hardship to most of the world. The political and economic instability brought fascism (and Nazism) into Italy, Germany, and Spain. This in turn brought the World War II [1939–1945].

 

These traumatic events continued with violent confrontations in the form of worldwide revolt against colonialism. Many wars of independence in Africa and Latin America brought new totalitarian governments controlled by a dictator or an authoritarian political party. In eastern Europe and east Asia, governments were taken over by communist revolutions. By the 1980s, more than half of the world’s people lived under communist governments.

 

A Variety of Theologies

 

As answers from liberal theology was unable to cope with all the worldwide political and economic disasters, religious liberalism was greatly weakened. Yet, it still retained much of its power since it had dominated most of the seminaries which produced liberal church leaders. As a result, liberalism continued to erode traditionally conservative denominations.

 

Conservatives opposed liberalism’s continuous influence, viewing its historical-critical theologies as a danger to the survival of the Christian faith. At a meeting in Niagara Falls, New York [1895], the conservative movement listed five “fundamentals” or basic doctrines: [1] the inerrancy of Scripture, [2] the divinity of Jesus, [3] the virgin birth, [4] Jesus’ death as a substitute for our sin, [5] Jesus’ physical resurrection and impending return. With the publication of a 4-set books called The Fundamentals [1909–1915], fundamentalism was established.

 

In 1920s, almost all denominations were divided over the issue of fundamentalism. Bible-centred pastors and laity frequently found themselves at odds with the hierarchy of their own denominations which were controlled by liberals. In response, they founded new denominations, erected new seminaries, and began new missionary agencies. Because the word “fundamentalism” has been corrupted by the recent rise of Islamic fundamentalism, the movement is now called “evangelicalism”.

 

Another movement opposing the domination of liberalism was neo-orthodoxy founded by Karl Barth (1886–1968), the most influential theologian in the 20th-century. Following historical orthodoxy faith, Barth’s reasserted the sinfulness of man, the transcendence of God, and the emphasis on biblical theology. However, his rejection of the absolute trustworthiness of the Bible deviated from historical orthodoxy. Barth’s followers—Reinhold Niebuhr (social application of the gospel), Rudolf Bultmann (demythologization of the Bible), and Paul Tillich (application of existentialism)—deviated even further from orthodox faith.

 

Since liberalism, by its nature, was not a cohesive interpretation of life or religion, the movement inevitably became fractured, especially during the 1960s, resulting in a proliferation of theologies, each attempting to make Christianity more relevant to mankind, but all failing miserably. Some of these include theology of hope, liberation theology, death-of-God theology, secular theology, process theology, black theology, feminist theology.

 

Charismatic Renewal

 

One of the great religious movements in the 20th-century has been the Pentecostal/charismatic renewal. Pentecostals insisted that the “baptism in the Spirit” was a normative second work of grace for all believers and was evidenced by certain spiritual gifts, most of all speaking in tongues. Pentecostalism grew out of the Wesleyan holiness movement. It began at Charles Parham’s Bethel Bible Institute in Topeka, Kansas [1901], and emerged as a separatist, renewal movement, gathering people from various denominations and creating new churches. The largest Pentecostal denomination is the Assemblies of God [founded 1914]. It has spread internationally to many countries.

 

The movement was revitalized in the 1960s with the emergence of a “charismatic movement” of the Spirit in existing churches from different denominations. Pentecostals brought about renewal through lay ministry and the gifts of the Spirit in both Protestant and Roman Catholic churches. South Korea, long a strong centre of Pentecostal life, experienced explosive evangelism and church growth.

 

In the 1980s, the so-called “third wave” of Holy Spirit-centred church renewal began, largely through the Vineyard movement, combining Pentecostal and charismatic emphases with traditional evangelical thought. These various charismatic movements have had a major impact on American religious life, particularly in the area of corporate worship and missions.

 

Roman Catholic Adaptations

 

For many centuries, the Roman Catholic Church reacted to the modern world with fear and condemnation. The Council of Trent [1545–1563] condemned the Protestant Reformation. Pope Paul IV published the Index of Forbidden Books [1559], prohibiting the faithful from reading books deemed to be even slightly non-orthodox. Pope Pius IX issued a Syllabus of Errors [1846] rejecting contemporary ideas such as democracy. Pope Pius X condemned liberalism and modernistic ideas [1907]. With all these measures, the Roman Catholic Church was not threatened outwardly by liberal theology. However, they also restricted the church from reaching the modern mind.

 

New theological thoughts, overtly suppressed for the past centuries, increasingly divided the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church in the 20th-century. The top of the papal authority structure clutched tenuously to traditional conservatism until Pope John XXIII [pope 1958–1963] supported both renewal and a more liberal theological outlook. He convened the Council of Vatican II [1962–1965] to revitalize the church. The council attempted to retain traditional theology, yet make the church more inviting to the young and the unchurched. Changes included the celebration of the Mass in common languages rather than Latin, a greater role in the work of the church for laity, and a more cordial relationship with other religious groups.

 

Under Pope John Paul II [pope 1978–2005], the church retrenched theologically; renewed its emphasis on adoration of the Virgin; but also promoted a more fervent revival and world presence; and published a new catechism. Despite this, the reform-minded Catholic theologians, rebels like Yves Congar, Hans Kung, and Edward Schillebeeckx, began to speak out against Catholic traditions and were more sympathetic to the Protestant cause.

 

Ecumenism

 

The interdenominational cooperation in missionary activities in the 19th-century led to the hope of many Christians to further the collaboration among churches. The World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh [1910] would eventually lead to visible manifestations of Christian unity.

 

Out of the Edinburgh meeting, three international conferences were formed: [1] International Missionary Council (IMC)—sharing missionary strategies, experiences, and various resources. [2] Faith and Order Conference—dealing with the beliefs of churches, their understanding and practice of ordination, sacraments, etc. [3] Life and Work Conference—seeking common responses to contemporary problems on the basis of the gospel, including economic and industrial matters, moral and social issues, international affairs, Christian education. Eventually, the three joined to form the World Council of Churches (WCC) [1961]. The international assembly meets once every 7 to 8 years.

 

This form of international cooperation by about 300 national churches appeared to manifest the unity of the church and the oneness in Christ. Unfortunately, the movement often sacrificed sound theology for structural union based on the lowest common denominator. Gradually, the focus on spreading the gospel gave way to an emphasis of social action which then led to support of left leaning policies and liberation theology, resembling communist propaganda.

 

Because of this problem, many conservative and evangelical national churches avoided the WCC and instead met to plan cooperation in world evangelization. The World Congress on Evangelism [1966] led to the establishment of a permanent organization—International Congress on World Evangelization. The Lausanne Covenant [1974] emphasized loyalty to the inspired Scripture as the infallible rule of faith and practice, and also stressed that social concern and action were a relevant part of the gospel.

 

Growth of Christianity in the Third World

 

As the second millennium drew to a close, there were hopeful evidence of the spread of Christianity to most of the world. In the West, Christianity has been weakened by cultural accommodation and materialism. The majority of the population still profess as Christians but are in name only, not living a Christian life and not participating in a church. In contrast, a disciplined spirituality, prayer life, and passionate evangelism have brought explosive growth to the Third World. African, Asian, and Latin American nations witness unprecedented increases in Christian conversions. The fastest growth has been reported in China where persecutions by the communist government have been ongoing and intense. The number of Christians has been estimated at 80 to 100 million. Moreover, these new Christian communities in the Third World have begun to send out missionaries, some of these to the West.

 

Since 1990, the dismantling of communism in the former Soviet Union and in eastern Europe, while politically and economically destabilizing, has resulted in a renewal of Christian evangelism and rapid growth in churches.

 

All over the world, the proliferation of technology has aided growth by providing teaching and mass-evangelism opportunities. Radio, television, films, satellites, and the Internet have all opened new avenues for the gospel. It is now possible through radio and television for the gospel to be heard worldwide. The phenomenal use of technology by Billy Graham, for example, has brought unprecedented global impact. The aggressive vision of Bible translators, many of them with Wycliffe Bible Translators, makes feasible the goal of providing at least a part of the Bible in every existing language group.

 

 

 

ERA 8—Postmodern Church: World Evangelism
(AD 2000–??)

 

Rise of Cultural Paganism

 

While the light of the gospel seems to shine with increasing intensity across many parts of the globe, a cultural erosion has occurred in the original Christian nations. Scholars from a wide variety of disciplines are grappling with the demise of the Enlightenment and its confidence in reason and technology. In the last decades of the 20th-century, postmodernism has emerged, with its prevailing emphasis on the self as the centre of life and personal meaning. In postmodernism, values are not seen as universal truths but as individual and private preferences, leading to moral relativism. Self-realization and self-fulfilment become the gods of the age. Postmodernism owes much of its philosophical base to nihilism and combines the notion of a liberated self with an attitude of despair.

 

Concurrent with postmodernism is the rise of cults, a clear demonstration of the emptiness of human soul that looks for any kind of spiritual fulfilment. One main cult is New Age thought, an eclectic blend of Eastern mysticism, pre-Christian paganism, and spiritism. New Age borrows heavily from the vocabulary of traditional Christian beliefs yet redefines such terms to fit its pantheistic worldview. In addition, many cults report ever-increasing numbers of adherents.

 

Increase in Persecution

 

The 20th-century witnessed a huge increase in visible violent persecutions of Christians perpetrated by authoritarian political regimes. These include right-wing totalitarian countries and left-wing communist countries. With the democratization of many totalitarian governments in the Third World and the demise of communism in eastern Europe, systemic persecutions decreased or even completely stopped. In the remaining authoritarian countries, persecutions have become less violent and less severe because of the work of the press in reporting violations of human rights, and the willingness of democratic countries to exert pressure on the persecutors.

 

On the other hand, religious persecutions have increased in scope and in intensity. In the past decade, the most brutal persecutions are found in Islamic countries. The efforts by Muslims to suppress the Christian faith has led to mass killings of Christians in many countries, including Sudan, Ethiopia, northern Nigeria, and Indonesia. In addition, religious persecutions of Christians have recently increased drastically in parts of India where radical Hindus are the majority.

 

One may ask why Muslims and Hindus need to resort to violence in stopping the Christian gospel. The simple answer is that they feel threatened because of the fact that many people have converted to Christianity once they heard the gospel. In today’s supposedly free marketplace of religions, each person can freely choose his own religion. Truth will always win the heart of most people. Christians should always stride to win religious freedom for everyone.

 

While visible persecutions occur in the Third World, less visible or even invisible persecutions occur in the former Christian countries in Europe and North America. Here, the persecutions are in the form of marginalization of Christianity and restrictions of free speech of Christians. On one hand, atheists and secularists tried to exclude Christianity (but not other religions) from the public square. In the US, religious instruction in public school was outlawed [1948]; state-approved public prayers were banned [1962]; voluntary state-approved Bible reading was disapproved [1963]. On the other hand, pro-choice (anti-life) groups obtained help from liberal politicians and judges to silence Christians from condemning immoral practices in the society. Today, public opposition against homosexuality is illegal in many western countries.

 

Resurgence of Evangelicalism

 

In the West, there is one clear trend in the last few decades—the decline of attendance in mainline liberal Protestant churches. In these churches, theological liberalism has eroded the entire system of Christian doctrine, leading to the evaporation of faith and the secularization of those churches. They become so identified with the culture that all distinctiveness disappears. Subsequently, there is no incentive for participation by members.

 

At the same time, most evangelical and charismatic churches report increase in attendance, with some national churches increasing by more than 30% in 10 years. Research has shown that orthodox Christian belief is the single best predictor of church participation.

 

As missionaries sent to the Third World are mostly from evangelical denominations, new churches in those countries are mostly evangelical churches, stressing evangelistic outreach and complete trust in the Scripture, the Word of God. The number of evangelical Christians in the world has risen significantly in recent years.

 

While there are slightly different emphases by different evangelical groups, all agree on the highest priority of world evangelism. Evagelistic work by these churches are well-supported by a large variety of parachurch evangelical organizations which concentrate on youth evangelism, adult evangelism, publication and distribution of the Bible.

 

Whatever the state of Evangelicalism is, an emphasis upon the need for revival and renewal remains constant. Charismatics see hope in the restoration of extraordinary gifts of the Spirit; others look to the Church Growth movement for vitality; still others hope for a restoration of the Reformation emphases—grace alone, faith alone, Christ alone, and Scripture alone.

 

Looking Forward

 

Today is a time that combines elements of both triumph and discouragement for Christ’s kingdom. But Christians have assurance from God through His Word that He will be completely triumphant in the end. The God who controls history will bring His divine drama to consummation in a grand and glorious day.

 

The history of the Christian church is a witness to the providence of God. Schaff said it well:

 

“During this long succession of centuries it (the church) has outlived the destruction of Jerusalem, the dissolution of the Roman empire, fierce persecutions from without, and heretical corruptions from within, the barbarian invasion, the confusion of the dark ages, the papal tyranny, the shock of infidelity, the ravages of revolution, the attacks of enemies and the errors of friends, the rise and fall of proud kingdoms, empires, and republics, philosophical systems, and social organizations without number. And, behold, it still lives, and lives in greater strength and wider extent than ever; controlling the progress of civilization, and the destinies of the world; marching over the ruins of human wisdom and folly, ever forward and onward; spreading silently its heavenly blessings from generation to generation, and from country to country, to the ends of the earth.”

[from Schaff, Philip (1892): History of the Christian church, volume 1, Introduction.]

 

The goal for all Christians is the proclamation of the gospel to all nations as Christ said: “And this gospel of the kingdom will be proclaimed throughout the whole world as a testimony to all nations, and then the end will come.” (Matthew 24:14, ESV) Today, this goal is in sight. Let us hasten in spreading the gospel till Christ’s glorious second coming.

 

Main references:

Eubanks, Gary (2000?): Church history: A Biblical view.

Hannah, John D. (2000): The Kregel pictorial guide to church history.

 

 

 

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ERA 1—Early Church (1): Persecutions (AD 30–300)

Purpose of Church History

Beginning of the Christian Church

Internal and External Struggles

ERA 2—Early Church (2): Stability (AD 300–600)

From Persecution to State Religion

Church Councils

Growing Power of the Church

ERA 3—Medieval Church (1): Expansion and Conflicts (AD 600–1000)

Rise of Monasticism

Missions among the Barbarians

Emergence of Islam

Holy Roman Empire

Corruption in the Papacy

ERA 4—Medieval Church (2): Growth & Decline of the Papacy (AD 1000–1500)

Growth of Papal Power

East-West Schism

Crusades against Islamic invasion

Expansion and Scholasticism

Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism

Pre-Reformation Protests

Renaissance

ERA 5—Modern Church (1): Reformation & Struggles (AD 1500–1700)

The Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther and Lutheranism

Zwingli and Calvin

Anabaptists and Baptists

Reformation in England

Roman Catholic Counter Reformation

Enlightenment and Rationalism

ERA 6—Modern Church (2): Revival & Missions (AD 1700–1900)

Pietism and Methodists

American and French Revolutions

Philosophical Challenges and Reaction

Social Reform

Revivals in the U.S.

Protestant Missions to the World

ERA 7—Modern Church (3): Ecumenism & Adaptations (AD 1900–2000)

Political and Social Changes

A Variety of Theologies

Charismatic Renewal

Roman Catholic Adaptations

Ecumenism

Growth of Christianity in the Third World

ERA 8—Postmodern Church: World Evangelism (AD 2000–??)

Rise of Cultural Paganism

Increase in Persecution

Resurgence of Evangelicalism

Looking Forward